Integrating Social Responsibility In Higher Education Management Essay

Integrating Social Responsibility In Higher Education Management Essay The perception of Corporate Social Responsibility is generally understood to mean that corporations have a degree of accountability not only for the economic consequences of their activities, but also for the social and green connotation. This is occasionally referred to as a triple bottom line approach that considers the economic, social and ecological aspects of corporate activity. a variety of terms are used to describe CSR proposal, including Corporate Responsibility, Corporate Accountability, Corporate Citizenship and Sustainability. The implication and value of CSR may differ in various statuses, depending on local factors including culture, environmental circumstances, and the legal framework. Issues like Education, The Environment, Hunger and Equal Opportunity were once thought of as social issues to be addressed completely by government. Today, public and private organizations collaborate; amalgamation resources, skills, energies and relationships to solve what we now understand are economic issues. But every corporation cannot take on every social issue. Todays most successful corporations must make strategic choices in their approach to Corporate Citizenship. Not only cost-effectively successful, they are deeply occupied in their communities. These companies understand limitations and competencies, and use this knowledge to create a deliberate social agenda that has positive collision in what they do every day. This is the new model for corporate citizenship. A business strategy creating competitive advantage, determining standards and guiding employees in how we manage every day, in communities around the world Literature review The aim of the following literature review is to identify the most important and knowledgeably important academic and practical works throughout the past decade as well as the current practices upon the concept of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) in higher education. According to (Valentine and Fleischman 2008) CSR is defined as the economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary expectancies that society has of organizations at a given point in time. This definition is based on Carrollà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸s study (1979) where he defined three components of social responsibility and broadened the scope of its understanding (Maignan 2001, Popa 2010). Carroll suggested that businesses have to fulfill economic, legal and ethical in order to address its entire obligations to society. Economic responsibilities designate the obligations for businesses to be productive and profitable (Maignan 2001). Legal responsibilities refer to the framework of legal requirements which businesses need to meet while practicing economic duties (Carroll 1979). Ethical responsibilities are the defined appropriate behaviors by established norms that businesses should follow. According to (Filho et al. 2010) Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is defined through the ethical relationship and transparency of the company with all its stakeholders that has a relationship as well as with the establishment of corporate goals that are compatible with the sustainable development of society, preserving environmental and cultural resources for future generations, respecting diversity and promoting the reduction of social problems (Filho et al. 2010). While CSR points out a way for companies to contribute to the well-being of the society, it also gives the opportunity to create a true competitive advantage and positive reputation for the business world (Smith 2007, Porter and Kramer 2006). Under the new circumstances such as the competition in higher education industry, many higher education institutions are adapting a more business-like approach in order to compete and survive in the changing face of the industry (Weymans 2010, Gumport 2000, Goia and Thomas 1996). And during the adaptation of this business-like approach, some institutions are discovering the importance of corporate image, corporate identity, corporate reputation and mainly CSR as a reputation and an advantage building strategy (Atakan and Eker 2007, Stensaker 2007, Porter and Kramer 2006, Melewar and Akel 2005). Although issues of CSR have always been a part of the educational mission of higher education institutions, through implementing CSR strategies, higher education institutions are now using this approach as a part of their competitive strategy. Hence, by developing such strategies higher education institutions are also discovering the opportunity to move the focus beyond the classroom into thei r own institutional operations. 2.1 Higher education and CSR One of the most significant indicators of social progress is education, which also plays a decisive role for a society to achieve selfà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ sustainable and equal development. With an increasing global realization of how business community can contribute to social objectives, education deserves a higher level of corporate involvement than status quo. Higher education institutions are often looked upon to take a leadership role within societies.  Ã‚  Students expect to learn by examples, whether through advanced research or by extending the bounds of justice on a global scale.  Ã‚   Now business institutions are emphasizing a lot on CSR and they are finding different ways for the implementation of CSR. Higher education institutions can choose to be followers, or they can grab the opportunity to be leader and adopt CSR a vital aspect of their competitive advantage.  Ã‚  A recent academic article on CSR suggests that higher education institutions can lead in the practices of CSR two ways, first, higher education institutions should promote a true culture of CSR throughout their organizations.  Ã‚  Second, higher education institutions should develop social marketing actions in order to better communicate and interact with stakeholders.   Higher education institutions have an opportunity to lead in an area that most businesses have recognized as important.  Higher education institutions can and should build on a tradition of the past decades of attempting to engage in positive social actions. 2.2 CSR and the Stake Holders The stakeholders of a higher education include present students, faculty and management. In the 1980s, student protest often focused on how higher education institutions were managing their large endowments.  Students wanted to have an impact; higher education institutions were grappling with how to respond. In todays era, students still care about how higher education institutions are exercising their own CSR, from climate change and recycling to making a difference with respect to global inequities in the world.   Higher education institutions can meet the expectations of stakeholders by adopting a well-conceived CSR strategy in the same manner as other organizations. Higher education institutions should look forward to grab the opportunity about the concern of stake holders (student current and potential, faculty and management). Higher educations institutions have realized that to gain a competitive edge in the market they have to satisfy the concerns of their stake holders. Therefore implementing CSR strategies in a higher education institution should be considered in order to obtain a true competitive advantage and a positive reputation. Moreover practicing what is taught and thereby generating a real example of the academic knowledge can create a unique proposition for any higher education institution The government of Pakistan needs to be focused on educational and other sector and should be socially responsible and business friendly. Now some educational institution is working to incorporated CSR into the business degrees program and courses, especially at leading business institutes such as LUMS or IBA. 2.3 CSR Practices in Pakistan In Pakistan there is a set of social pressures that force companies and other institutions to act in a much more compact and price-driven manner, thus resulting in a less than 50 percent compliance rate with basic CSR principles and objectives But In educational sector there is less awareness on CSR importance. Now some institutions are putting their efforts to implement the concept of CSR in the future business leaders. The Multi-National Companies is playing a vital role for making business student aware about what is CSR for this purpose different seminars and workshop is conducted for the student on the importance of CSR and its strategy practice and implementation and creating opportunities for the students, potential employer/employee to learn from their best practices. Some companies like Unilever, P G, Gillette, Siemens is performing their job well to aware the future business leaders Of Pakistan. 2.4 Karachi School for Business and Leadership  KSBL Is also committed to promote the core values of integrity and entrepreneurial spirit within our students. So we will be offering a leading-edge MBA programs, with a focus on ethical leadership and corporate social responsibility, to the many talented individuals in the country as well as from abroad. 2.5 Bahria University A Leadership Development Centre is functional at both the Islamabad and Karachi Campuses of the Bahria University. It is built in order to solve the issues and challenges that are faced by students in the world and to become successful leaders and are able to take higher responsibilities. To facilitate student activities, Bahria University has set up a Student Resource Centre that helps students to develop their leadership, communication, management and social skills. Bahria University believes in producing all rounder students containing various skills with themselves and therefore it has provided a platform for growth in that context. 3. Methodology The study research method will be the crucial research plan. Both the qualitative and quantitative techniques would be used in our research. Some of deans, professors and Assistant professors would be interviewed regarding Corporate Social Responsibility and integration with HEC. Students of MBA and BBA were asked to fill a close-ended questionnaire in identification of factors influencing CSR upon Higher Educations, decisions and a suggestion were also be asked from the Professors and students. Measurement Procedure Following Measurement procedures are used in this research. 1) We ask for suggestions and recommendation from the students and the professors. 2) We also rate the major factors of CSR upon higher education. Frame of reference We interacted with the faculty and student who have moderate level of experience and have sound knowledge about the CSR and the higher education system. This approach would help in our research to compile results by cumulating the opinions of the experienced people. Instrument selection Primarily we collected data through interviewing management. Through secondary method, we extracted the information by evaluating the past articles regarding CSR and Higher educations. Since this study explores the Pakistani environment from the perspective of educated professionals and students, the choice of questionnaire have been selected. People who are in consideration for useful and remarkable information for the study will be initially contacted i.e. Students and Professors Variables Main variables would be influence upon social responsibility, higher education, course integration, and Business schools. 4. CSR THE STAKEHOLDERS Faculty Faculty of the institution would be the direct stakeholder of this research as they would be benefited if the research is successful. Students Business School students are the indirect stakeholders in this research because they would be utilized in the convenience sampling of our research methodology. Management The Management would be the direct stakeholder of this research because it is the management who are the core responsible of Corporate Social Responsibility in any organization, especially in Educational institutions. I.e. Business Schools 5. Conclusion and Recommendations Business schools have a responsibility to provide practitioners with training in the basics of ethics, which would ideally act as a catalyst to stimulate socially and ethically managed business organizations. (Cornelius Wallace, Tassabehji, 2007). Business ethics course provides an understanding of ethical and social responsibility issues in contemporary business life. The aim is to enhance studentsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸ critical perspectives in implementing ethical behavior in organizations in relation to various stakeholders as well as the institutionalization of business ethics in the corporations (Undergraduate Handbook 2011-2012). Due to the lack of jobs, recession, inflation unemployment is increasing day by day which leaves only few jobs for business graduates and companies now are focusing on those students that have an extensive knowledge in their respective specialized skills and a good knowledge about CSR and about its implementation. Now, why companies are looking for individuals with CSR knowledge because consumers today require every knowledge about the product. Consumers are demanding more information on everything from where and how their goods are produced to the environmental record of the companies they invest in Pakistan is lacking many things related to Corporate Integration and social responsibility, higher authorities are not taking necessary actions to restore things for the betterment. Integration of CSR into curriculum Offer an additional course in the BBA/MBA program on the importance of CSR its strategy building and practice. For practice and strategy building some reference is needed from case studies and seminars should be offered for the executive MBA Courses which should be make mandatory for all the business students. An additional fund is needed to trained the faculty member/professors by offering workshops related to CSR and international business leaders should be invited as a guest speaker to share their expertise. The research work is also required to do research on current practices of CSR and It should be referred to CSR in the area of their expertise. The faculty member should ask for presentations and report related to CSR model building and its implementation in Pakistan. It should be mandatory for completing the course. Executive programs and seminars on CSR can be developed to help educate business leaders and managers on CSR principles and share international and local best practices. Academic institutions should make CSR an area of academic research. Academic institutions can make an immense contribution to promoting CSR through research findings. Educational institutions can collaborate with businesses to effectively introduce future managers to ethical and responsible business etiquette. Such initiatives include making internship arrangements for practical experience to students at exemplary companies. Students and lecturers can also be involved to conduct process assessments in companies. Academic institutions should also tap into funding and resources from state agencies and business community to develop CSR curricular and facilitate better transition from academia to employment. We need serious, concerted efforts to integrate social corporate responsibility in educational Institution. Business schools should maintain and increase CSR coverage. Business schools should not only react to the growing awareness and demand of students, but also have a proactive role in responsible management education, in both teaching and research. CSR and ethics can be embedded in core subjects, but also be taught as a separate core subject. The students with their positive attitudes towards CSR should draw the demand from the suppliers of their management education to include social and ethical management issues and courses. They act upon their attitudes and values by searching for schools that teach responsible management and by creating their own organizations such as Net Impact.

The Internet :: Technology, e-commerce

In recent years, Internet has becomes one of the best tools in the modern society covering a wide range of areas such as business, military, communication and information exchange. It is not only limited to web browsing or sending / receiving emails only. People could even purchase tickets of the movie or concert tickets, download any favourite songs or movies and to buy things in foreign countries via the Internet without leaving the house (Pakhare, 2010). Internet is a common term in the 21st century. It is now relatively easier and lower cost to develop an e-commerce business than it was 10 years ago, therefore more individuals have bloomed up to entering into the world of Internet business. At the same time, failure cases are still rising. E-commerce has not been cooled down by the â€Å"Dot com bubble†, but it has caused e-commerce to become more flourished than before (Census and Statistics Department, 2010). It is due to the fact that Internet services are begin provided in 24 x 7 x 365 basis such as service is available all year round. Consumers could gain any marketing information and to gather other consumers’ experiences in a borderless fashion via the Internet (Backer, 2005). Thousands of forums, blogs, news-groups and social utilities are famous channels in distributing consumer to consumer (C2C) information and business to consumer (B2C) information, otherwise known as the â€Å"word of mouth†. Based on the Internet, both good and bad comments of the products could be obtained in a more effective and efficient. Reports from the Hong Kong government were available which provided an overview on the usage of Internet by Hong Kong resident. On â€Å"Usage of personal computers and internet services by Hong Kong Residents, 2000 to 2009† report (Census and Statistics Department, 2010), it showed that there was an increase in the number of families with Personal Computer (PC) connected to the internet during the years 2000 to 2009. The numbers have increased from 770 thousands families (36.4%) in the year 2000 to 1.6 million families (73.3%) in the year 2009. In 2009, there were approximately 620 thousands families (26.7%) without Internet connection. The people among the top usage of the Internet were mainly from 10 to 34 years old with more than 95% of the people in this age group with Internet connection in 2009. The number of people above the age of 45 with internet usage have also increased by nearly 10 times, during the years from around 129 thousands (5.

No Taxation Without Repesentation

Explain the meaning of the revolutionary slogan ‘no taxation without representation’. How did that express the core values of the new American political culture? Under American Revolution we understand politic developments in British colonies in North America in 1775-1783, which ended up creating the United States. They were caused by the unwillingness of the colonies to obey to the interests of the metropolis. The slogan that best expressed the cause of the revolution was ‘No taxation without representation’. It was widely used as a main complaint to royalty and colonial administration during the American Revolution.The slogan originated in the 50 – 60 years of the XVIII century, when British colonists in America began to realize that in spite of their large number and business activities, which are taxed, they have no representation in the Parliament and cannot exercise their rights guaranteed by the Bill of Rights, adopted in 1689. Let’s loo k a little bit closer to the history. In the 1760s British Parliament for the first time started a massive taxation of Americans, violating the fundamental bourgeois legal precept – no taxation without representation.Residents of the province were used to and wanted to continue to pay only the taxes that have been approved by their own elected representatives in local assemblies. Britain took, in addition, a law forbidding Americans to move to the vacant land. This law affected rich landowners, whose entrepreneurial appetites were dramatically reduced; and also small and poor farmers, who had been taken away a cherished dream of their own land. It was followed by political repression: restrictions on freedom of religion, the abolition of jury trials, the privacy of home and property, entry of the British troops in North America.Many of these decrees and laws came from the monarch, but in contrast to earlier times the freedom and rights of Americans have been actively suppress ed and limited also by the British Parliament. Since the 1760s Britain actually began to rule in North America as an absolute monarchy, trying to impose conditions inherent in feudal society. Americans cherish for more than a half century bourgeois social order, were shocked by their attempt to create a new absolutism. The 1760-1770-ies were characterized by the democratization of the political consciousness of Americans and American political culture.An ideological revolution was developing in America, that prepared and made possible a half decade later, the political revolution. Democratization touched a political practice in North America also. Previously unknown forms of political action of the people were developing: mass gatherings, meetings, rallies. Thus was formed the immediate or direct democracy, that started to compete with representative democracy. All sorts of amateur political organizations were created; the most prominent among them was the â€Å"Sons of Libertyâ₠¬ .The most prominent representative of the moderate stage and course of the anti-colonial movement was James Otis. He was most famously associated with the phrase, â€Å"taxation without representation is tyranny†. In the 1760s he became a political oracle of American patriots. In 1761 in the Supreme Court of Massachusetts, Otis condemned the English decree, empowers customs colonies search procedure without judicial authorization of any dwelling to retrieve contraband. Otis argued that the famous English Bill of Rights and Habeas Corpus Act, which guaranteed inviolability of the person, property and housing, equally apply to Americans.No law or decree can be accepted that contradicts these basic acts which Otis after Blackstone called the Constitution. Otis turned the English Constitution and natural law in two main pillars to protect the interests of Americans. Demonstrating brilliant erudition and perseverance, he drew from the English constitution provisions that guaran tee citizens the security of property, and the right to representative government and trial by jury, and freedom of religion, and many other rights, which were based on liberal bourgeois world order.Otis has worked hard to prove the importance of the struggle for representation of North American provinces in Parliament. But his tenacity has not conceived a significant impact on his compatriots. Common sense told patriots, that a small group of colonial deputies in parliament cannot change its policy. Samuel Adams, who was established in the late 1760-1770's at the leading position in the patriotic movement of Massachusetts, states that the colonies cannot be fully represented in Parliament and that their representation at Westminster will turn against provinces itself.That would legitimize parliamentary tyranny for North America, and that therefore, a struggle of patriots for seats in the English legislature leads them astray. American political culture contains a number of core ide als, values and standards that define the relationship between citizens and government, and citizens to one another. Different societies view politics differently, and have different approaches to the view of society. In America, the views of society are liberty, equality, democracy, and individualism.Liberty as right to be free; equality as equality of opportunity; democracy as elected officials from the people; and individualism as the individual's rights are valued above those of the state (government). The American system creates in people a confidence that each and every person have to play by the same rules, and the role of the government is to protect these rules; confidence in the will of the people to support enterprise and entrepreneurship, to persistent work anywhere. And even if at some point people are unsuccessful, they will be making efforts to achieve success again and again.

Indian Space Research Organisation - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 7 Words: 2093 Downloads: 4 Date added: 2017/09/19 Category Science Essay Type Argumentative essay Did you like this example? Indian Space Research Organisation’s(ISRO) Chandrayaan – Founder of water on Moon Chandrayaan-1 was a scientific investigation – by spacecraft – of the Moon. The name Chandrayaan means â€Å"Chandra-Moon, Yaan-vehicle†, –in Indian languages (Sanskrit and Hindi) , – the lunar spacecraft. Chandrayaan-1 is the first Indian planetary science and exploration mission. It is Indias first unmanned lunar probe. It was launched by the Indian Space Research Organisation in October 2008, and operated until August 2009. The vehicle was successfully inserted into lunar orbit on 8 November 2008. [ On 14 November 2008, the Moon Impact Probe separated from the Chandrayaan orbiter at 20:06 and struck the south pole in a controlled manner, making India the fourth country to place its flag on the Moon. [10] The probe impacted near Shackleton Crater at 20:31 ejecting underground soil that could be analysed for the presence of lunar water ice. Th e estimated cost for the project was Rs 386 crore (US$ 80 million). Former President A P J Abdul Kalam, whose idea it was to include the impactor as part of Chandrayaan’s cargo, described the achievement as â€Å"a gift to Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru† because the event happened on the 119th birth anniversary of India’s first prime minister. As the mini satellite began its nosedive at 8. 06 pm, its altimeter began recording measurements to prepare the ground for a rover to land on the lunar surface during a second mission planned for 2012. Over a two-year period, it was intended to survey the lunar surface to produce a complete map of its chemical characteristics and three-dimensional topography. The polar regions are of special interest as they might contain ice. The lunar mission carries five ISRO payloads and six payloads from other space agencies including NASA, ESA, and the Bulgarian Aerospace Agency, which were carried free of cost. After suffering from s everal technical issues including failure of the star sensors and poor thermal shielding, Chandrayaan stopped sending radio signals at 1:30 AM IST on 29 August 2009 shortly after which, the ISRO officially declared the mission over. Chandrayaan operated for 312 days as opposed to the intended two years but the mission achieved 95 percent of its planned objectives. Among its many achievements was the discovery of the widespread presence of water molecules in lunar soil. The basic components of the chandrayaan-1 spacecraft are: I. The scientific payloads: the instruments that will gather science data. II. The solar array that provides power to the spacecraft. Chandrayaan also carries a battery that stores the power generated by the solar array and feeds it to other systems. III. The thrusters perform fuel burns to change the spacecraft’s trajectory and attitude. IV. The various functional requirements of the spacecraft such as Attitude and Orbit Control, Command processin g, House keeping telemetry, Sensor data processing, Thermal management, payload data handling operation, dual gimbaled data transmission antenna pointing , onboard mission management etc would be taken care by the Bus Management Unit (BMU). V. The spacecraft also carries two star sensors and inertial reference unit based on miniaturised gyros providing absolute attitude. The Chandrayaan-1 mission was aimed at high-resolution remote sensing of the Lunar surface in visible, near Infrared, low energy X-rays and high-energy X-ray regions. Specific scientific goals are: i. To prepare a three-dimensional atlas (with a high spatial and altitude resolution of 5-10 m) of both near and far side of the moon. ii. To conduct chemical and mineralogical mapping of the entire lunar surface for distribution of mineral and chemical elements such as Magnesium, Aluminum, Silicon, Calcium, Iron and Titanium as well as high atomic number elements such as Radon, Uranium Thorium with high spatial resol ution. ii. By simultaneous photo geological and chemical mapping, we will be able to identify different geological units, which will test the hypothesis for the origin and early evolutionary history of the moon and help in determining the nature of the lunar crust. iii. One of the Areas of Study was Chemical stratigraphy of lunar crust by remote sensing of the central uplands of large lunar craters, and of the South Pole Aitken Region (SPAR), where interior material may be expected (Stratigraphy, a branch of geology, studies rock layers and layering). Chandrayaan-1 was sent to the Moon in a series of orbit-increasing manoeuvres around Earth instead of a direct trajectory to the Moon. At launch the spacecraft was inserted into geostationary transfer orbit (GTO) with an apogee of 22,860 km and a perigee of 255 km. The apogee was increased with a series of five orbit burns conducted over a period of 13 days after launch. The point of closest approach (the point at which two bodies a re the closest) is called the Perigree. The point of farthest excursion is called the Apogee. The Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3), an imaging spectrometer, was one of the 11 instruments on board Chandrayaan-I that came to a premature end on 29 August. M3 was aimed at providing the first mineral map of the entire lunar surface. Lunar scientists have for decades contended with the possibility of water repositories. They are now increasingly â€Å"confident that the decades-long debate is over,† a report says. â€Å"The moon, in fact, has water in all sorts of places; not just locked up in minerals, but scattered throughout the broken-up surface, and, potentially, in blocks or sheets of ice at depth. The results from the NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter are also â€Å"offering a wide array of watery signals. † Chandrayaan-1 has detected water on the moon. The findings overturn long-held beliefs that the surface of the moon was dry, potentially paving the way for scientists to one day set up a permanent research base on the moon. M3 detected absorption features near 2. 8-3. 0  µm on the surface of the Moon. For silicate bodies, such features are typically attributed to hydroxyl- and/or water-bearing materials. On the Moon, the feature is seen as a widely distributed absorption that appears strongest at cooler high latitudes and at several fresh feldspathic craters. The general lack of correlation of this feature in sunlit M3 data with neutron spectrometer H abundance data suggests that the formation and retention of OH and H2O is an ongoing surficial process. OH/H2O production processes may feed polar cold traps and make the lunar regolith a candidate source of volatiles for human exploration. The data from Chandrayaan-1 has revealed how the moon â€Å"produces its own water. Much like a big sponge, it absorbs charged particles emitted by the sun, which then interact with oxygen on the lunar surface to produce water. A scientific inst rument on Chandrayaan-1 — the Sub keV Atom Reflecting Analyser or SARA — made this discovery that was published in the latest edition of the Planetary and Space Science journal. A video camera captured the probe’s descent and a spectrometer measured traces of lunar gas and dust. The Chandrayaan orbiter is analysing the dust kicked up by the probe when it crashed on the moon’s surface. Video footage of the probe’s descent and data from the probe’s instruments have been relayed to the spacecraft and ground stations for analysis. The spacecraft, which takes about two hours to go around the moon, was behind the celestial body when the impact occurred. Recogntition and Award for Indian Space Research Organisation’s Chandrayaan Mission The AIAA American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics has selected ISROs Chandrayaan-1 mission as one of the recipients of its annual, AIAA SPACE 2009, awards, which recognize key contributions to sp ace science and technology. The International Lunar Exploration Working Group (ILEWG) chose the Chandrayaan-1 team for giving the International Cooperation award, M, Annadurai, project director, Chandrayaan-1. The Chandrayaan team of the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) was chosen for the award for accommodation and tests of the most international lunar payload ever (from 20 countries consisting of India, the European Space Agency representing 17 European countries, NASA and Bulgaria) and the successful launch of the probe on PSLV rocket on 22 October and the lunar insertion of the spacecraft carried out subsequently. ISRO is also planning a second version of Chandrayaan named Chandrayaan II. According to former ISRO Chairman G. Madhavan Nair, The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) hopes to land two motorised rovers- one Russian and another Indian on the Moon in 2013, as a part of its second Chandrayaan mission. The rover will be designed to move on wheels on the lunar surface, pick up samples of soil or rocks, do on-site chemical analysis and send the data to the mother-spacecraft Chandrayaan II, which will be orbiting above. How was the Moon formed? There are various theories on the evolution of Earth and Moon system. Currently four main hypotheses have been considered to explain the origin of the Moon: 1. Simultaneous Formation: Earth and the Moon were formed from the solar nebula near each other. This theory is able to explain why the Earth and the Moon rocks are isotopically so similar, but cannot explain why the Moon is depleted in Iron (Fe). 2. Capture: Moon formed somewhere else in the Solar System where the iron content was lower. After it formed, it drifted close to the Earth and was captured by the Earth’s gravitational field. This theory cannot explain why the Earth and the Moon rocks are isotopically similar but explains the high angular momentum of the Earth-Moon system. 3. Fission: According to this hypothesis , the Moon broke off from the hot molten Earth while the Earth was spinning very rapidly. This hypothesis can explain why the Earth and the Moon rocks are similar, chemically and isotopically, and the low iron content of the Moon, but is not able to explain the high angular momentum of the Earth-Moon system. 4. Giant-Impact: This hypothesis suggests that a body about 1-3 times the size of Mars impacted on the Earth during the last stages of the Earth’s formation, after the Earth’s iron core has already formed. When the impact occurred, it ejected a large part of the Earth into space and the ejecta then began orbiting the Earth. The material blasted off the Earth coalesced into the Moon. This hypothesis is able to explain (a) the missing Moon iron as most of the material blasted into space would have been depleted in iron, (b) Moon rocks and Earth rocks are isotopically similar and (c) why the Moon’s orbit as well as the Earth’s orbit are tilted. The giant impact hypothesis however have some difficulties since numerical models predict that a large fraction of the Moon would come from the impactor, leading to the same dilemma as the Capture theory. Is there water-ice present on the Moon? The comets and meteorites continuously bombard the surface of the Moon. Many of these objects contain water and as a result of their impact may leave water molecules on the lunar surface. Solar wind hydrogen bombarding the lunar surface continuously may also lead to production of water molecule through interaction with oxygen present in the lunar soils. Due to solar heating much of this water evaporate and lost into space very fast. However, the current hypothesis is that some of the water molecules may reach areas that are permanently shadowed from sunlight and gets trapped and significant traces of water/water ice may be present in such regions of the Moon. Due to the very slight tilt (~ 1. 5 °) of the Moons axis, some of the deep craters particularly near the polar regions never receive any light from the Sun they are permanently shadowed and can act as permanent trap of water molecules and in such craters scientists expect to find water in frozen form, if it is there at all. The Radar reflectivity experiments performed by Clementine hinted at the possibility of existence of large amounts of water frozen on these permanently shadowed regions of the moon. Lunar Prospectors neutron spectrometer detected bursts of slow neutrons over the moons poles, suggesting presence of hydrogen atoms and hence possible presence of water/ice. However, these experiments could not decisively confirm the presence of water/ice on moon, which still remains a mystery. If there is water ice present on the Moon then we would not have to transport water from Earth to the Moon, which would be extremely expensive. But instead will be able to rely on lunar ice. This is important for a cost-effective lunar habitation. What is the temperat ure on the moon? The moon undergoes extremes in temperature the side of the Moon receiving sunlight becomes scorching hot at about 130 ? C, and freezing cold at -180 ? C on the night side. Is there any Life on moon? So far none of the lunar missions have detected any signature of presence of life on the Moon. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Indian Space Research Organisation" essay for you Create order